Antigone - in the Action - 1889 Words

In the Action One of the most important characters in Sophocles’ Antigone is actually a group of individuals. The chorus consists of a group of Theban elders, and they serve as the voice of the people. These men are considered the wisest in all of Thebes. â€Å"Their attitude to what is going on is always shaped by their responsibilities and special interest of their position† (Kirkwood 3). The chorus is not attached to any one character specifically; it reacts to its own thoughts and emotions (3). The chorus is often used to create breaks in the scenes of plays, but in Antigone, the chorus serves a greater purpose then that of a segue. It is seamlessly integrated into the play, which allows the chorus to become highly personal and†¦show more content†¦The chorus cannot judge their actions based on right and wrong, because the gods control human actions. Antigone is deluded by the gods (Gardiner 90). â€Å"The gods lure a man’s mind forward to disaster, and he thinks evil’s something good† (Sophocles 621-623). The evil in this case is not made clear, whether it be the burial of the traitorous Polyneices or the defiance to Creon’s edict. The specific evil committed does not matter, because the chorus believes that the gods rule the will of the people entirely (Gardiner 90). This becomes the basis for its justification of Creon’s decision to put Antigone to death. The chorus justifies their support of Creon by blaming Antigone’s plight on the family curse. The chorus originally refers to Antigone as the unfortunate daughter of an unfortunate father, but later the men refer to her as her father’s daughter (Adams 55). This subtle change of words implies that the chorus believes the curse of Oedipus has been passed down to his daughters, and Antigone can do nothing to prevent her downfall. During the argument between Haemon and Creon, the chorus’ role as a character begins to grow. The ch orus functions as a third party observer with a strong bias towards the king of Thebes. Creon’s initial arguments impress the chorus, for they are steadfast supporters of the throne. Creon argues that one â€Å"must obey whatever man the city puts in charge, no matter what the issueShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Antigone Actions Were Just 1254 Words   |  6 Pages Buttkick High School Debate Speech: â€Å"Antigone’s Actions Were Just† While one can argue against the law of the gods and the laws of man, there is never a clear answer, as to which one is superior. In defense of her position, Antigones decision to bury her brother was justified because the laws of the gods, as well as respect for the deceased, triumph over the laws of the state. Morals are often independent and separate from human laws, but they should always be followed. Creon had no right to giveRead MoreAntigone s Actions Cause A Political Change1294 Words   |  6 Pages It is often supposed that Antigone’s actions cause a political change in the government; Creon will become a new and improved leader after the tragedies he had to suffer through. While some may argue that Antigone’s actions cause a political change in the government, ultimately there is no revolution because the leader never changes. After seeing his wife dead, Creon says, â€Å"I killed her, I can own no alibi: The guilt is wholly mine† (Sophocles 28). This quote shows how guilty Creon feels about theRead MoreHow Morals Are Thrown Around Through The Actions And Speeches Of The Characters Creon And Antigone1213 Words   |  5 PagesIn the tragedy â€Å"Antigone† many ideas of morals are tossed around through the actions and speeches of the characters Creon and Antigone. Though these morals seem logical at first, it can later be seen that these two characters represent an over fixation on singular ideas, or morals, of life when it is taken to the extreme. This close mindedness ultimately leads to these character’s downfalls with Creon revealing that his moral extreme is the â€Å"political sphere† of life and Antigone, the â€Å"private sphere†Read MoreEssay about The Greek Gods Did Not Think Before They Acted1615 Words   |  7 PagesHeroes are often individuals who are revered for their noble actions, courageous deeds, or simply remarkable feats. They are remembered and commended throughout their life span and after their passing as they touch the people around them in a positive manner. Comparable to modern day heroes, the heroes presented in the Greek tragedies in 400 B.C are also dignified and highly recognized. However, by elaborating the imperfections of the man or the woman and the resulting problems, Greek tragedies oftenRead More Antigone the Tragic Hero Essay929 Words   |  4 Pagescharacter. In Antigone by Sophocles, Antigone follows her own beliefs by giving her brother a proper burial, even if sh e has to break the law of King Creon. Because of her innocent actions, Antigone is punished unjustly and unfairly. Through her risky and unselfish actions, ability to follow her own beliefs, and perseverance Antigone is the tragic hero of this play. Furthermore, Antigone makes many important and appropriate decisions through her risky and unselfish actions. When she buriesRead MoreAntigone by Sophocles622 Words   |  3 PagesIn the playwright Antigone by Sophocles, the characters reveal their values while exposing a life lessons through their actions, dialogue, thoughts ,and effects on others. Antigone starts with two brothers, Eteocles and Polyneices, being killed at battle. Creon, the king of Thebes, declares that Eteocles’ death will be honored and Polyneices’ dishonored. He instead will lay unburied to become the food of animals. When the play opens, Antigone takes Ismene, Antigone and Ismene are sisters of the deadRead MoreSophocles Antigone : The Third Of The Three Theban Tragic Plays1106 Words   |  5 PagesSophocles’s play, Antigone is the third of the three Theban tragic plays and was written around 440 B.C. and is still well known today. Sophocles s play Antigone tells a tragic story abo ut family honor and a sister’s love for her brothers. After Antigone’s two brothers, Polynices and Eteocles died in battle, Creon became the new leader of Thebes. Creon orders that Eteocles have a proper burial while Polynices’s body remain unburied, simply left to rot. Antigone refuses to let her brother’s bodyRead MoreThe Production Of Antigone By Peta Tait Essay1708 Words   |  7 PagesThe production of Antigone by Company B reviewed by Peta Tait is correct in multiple instances even though the production has an incorrect central conflict. Company B’s production is correct when Tait explains how it portrays why Creon did not bury Polyneices’ body and just left it out to the animals instead (71). The production is also correct when implying why Creon treats Antigone and Ismene badly as if they have the dignity of animals (73). By looking at Sophocles’ Antigone, it portrays CreonRead MoreEssay on Sophocles: Family vs. Law890 Words   |  4 Pagesplay, Antigone, the author Sophocles presents situations where the characters have to choose between their family and the law. The characters must choose what is more important to them, their family or obeying the laws of Thebes. Throughout the play, Sophocles presents a strong theme of family values and the importance of it through the actions of Antigone, Creon and Haimon. Antigone, placed in many situations throughout the play, has to choose between her family and the law. Antigone choosesRead MoreThoreau Civil Disobedience Analysis963 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Civil Disobedience,† Thoreau makes points that clearly justify Antigone’s actions. One such case is when Antigone goes to give her brother a proper burial. Another one of these cases occurs when Antigone is put into jail for being honorable. Finally, an example of Thoreau’s idea of civil disobedience is epitomized when Antigone refuses allegiance to a government that she views as unjust. According to Thoreau, Antigone’s actions were just when she went to bury her brother despite Creon decreeing that

Ground Water Pollution by Fertilizers Free Essays

string(80) " taint of groundwater from septic armored combat vehicles \( Brebbia, 2014 \) \." Land Water Pollution by Fertilizers Table of Content Introduction Situation Problem Solution Decrease of the Procedure Chemicals Evaluation Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers Decision Mentions Introduction This essay is based on the subject â€Å"Ground Water Pollution by Fertilizers† . Furthermore, it is further divided into four different parts that contains state of affairs, job, solution and rating. The initial portion of this considered essay focal points on the current state of affairs of land H2O pollution by fertilisers, and the following portion discusses some serious jobs that people faced presents. We will write a custom essay sample on Ground Water Pollution by Fertilizers or any similar topic only for you Order Now The 3rd stage entails of import ways or solutions to undertake this lifting job in an appropriate mode, farther the last portion of this essay discusses the rating of all three stages. Situation The groundwater taint appears where there is a alteration of groundwater. The alteration implies the tainting by micro-organisms, chemicals, harmful and insecure substances and atoms, which is to boot the indispensable groundwater taint ( Rail, 2000 ) . In malice of the fact that groundwater pollution on occasion happens due to the regular or man-made stuff, the beginnings that conveying about the groundwater pollution are hardly characteristic or man-made. Truly, natural beginnings are non every bit hurtful as 1s produced by human exercisings may be. Those human exercisings bring about a few noxious and deathful stuffs, and when they touch the surface of the land, they can perforate into the belowground degree, and foul the H2O at that place. The grade that those chemicals contaminate the H2O relies on upon their kinds, the soil conditions that they have polluted ( Bjerg, 2000 ) . At that point, what are the beginnings in charge of the groundwater taint? The principal and important one is concerns. Chemical and other fabrication concerns need to treat and clean the H2O every bit much as possible for that ground they frequently use different sorts of chemicals that increase the land H2O pollution ( Tellam, 2007 ) . Then once more, when they have completed the procedure of managing and cleaning H2O, they neglect to suiting handle the utilised H2O, which is planned to be reused, therefore, the untreated utilised H2O watercourses go into the land and contaminates the groundwater. Furthermore, solid industrial wastes are to boot in charge of the groundwater taint, which can weaken deadly stuffs to groundwater pollution after rains and rainwater leaks underground ( Brebbia, 2014 ) . Furthermore, the agricultural exercisings are an surrogate intent behind groundwater taint, in which the fertilisers and other mixture substances can easy foul the groundwater ( Zobisch, 2006 ) . Persons are at some point in charge of the groundwater pollution, in visible radiation of the fact that they bring legion insecure and harmful substances to the groundwater, and subsequently foul it. These substances are characterized as the groundwater toxicants. In visible radiation of their qualities, they could be separated into point root and non-point 1. The point toxins are the 1s from sewerage pipes or armored combat vehicles ; and the non-point 1s are pesticides and fertilisers, which will efficaciously distribute over legion typical districts ( Thangarajan, 2002 ) . Problem There is an issue of groundwater pollution by high N fertiliser. It is revived from the surface, streams underneath the land and in the terminal watercourse to the surface. Generally, difference between the groundwater and river or saltwater is that one frequently includes dirt wets and other does non ( Hill, 2010 ) . There is similarly an actuality that groundwater has any longer rhythm term than that of the ocean or river H2O. An single can use submerged for agribusiness, industry and imbibing in some zone, which has less H2O. The important issue with groundwater is that it is influenced by N included in fertiliser and this leads legion persons to decease because they have merely groundwater to imbibe ( Giordano, 2007 ) . Fertilizer is known as a substance that supplies workss addendums like N or P, and this is the best methods for heightening creative activity of merchandise and nutriment quality. Previously, people did non hold unreal compost, evidently ; nevertheless, some of the experts discovered the first synthesis fertiliser in 19th century ( Ramachandra, 2006 ) . From that point, people have enhanced the quality and use of fertiliser and they have two kinds of fertilisers, natural and inorganic, now. Natural compost incorporates regular natural stuffs, so natural one is utile for nature ‘s sphere. In actuality, inorganic manure incorporates high N, which is begun from ammonium. The methodological analysis of doing inorganic manure is called Haber-Bosch procedure and inorganic compost is called manufactured compost. The ground for pollution in groundwater is supposed to nitrogen included in bogus man-made compost ( Pipkin, 2013 ) . In add-on, included nitrogen interaction affects submerged taint. The bulk of the N in the land starts from high N fertiliser nevertheless, some of them are from industrial waste and sewerage. As a regulation, N in fertiliser and other types have typical word pictures. At the point when there are two kinds of N in the land, N get downing from industrial waste and sewerage is effortlessly retained. This implies N from manure can non be assimilated good ; raindrops wash it, and do the submerged pollution ( Komatina, 2004 ) . Despite the fact that there are legion beginnings of N ( both common and anthropogenetic ) that could conceivably motivate the taint of the groundwater with nitrates, the anthropogenetic beginnings are genuinely the 1s that on a regular basis cause the step of nitrate to mount to an insecure degree. Waste stuffs are one of the anthropogenetic beginnings of nitrate befoulment of groundwater ( Pepper, 2011 ) . Numerous beginnings of possible nitrate tainting of groundwater exist, for illustration, â€Å" sites utilize for transportation of human and creature sewerage ; industrial waste identified with nourishment preparing, and some Polynesian offices ; and topographic points where managing and inadvertent autumn of nitrogen-bearing stuff may garner. Septic armored combat vehicles are one of the most critical illustrations of anthropogenetic beginning N befoulment of the groundwater. There are different parts of the universe where they have reported important taint of groundwater from septic armored combat vehicles ( Brebbia, 2014 ) . You read "Ground Water Pollution by Fertilizers" in category "Essay examples" Ground H2O pollution is usually identified with the thickness of infected models. In to a great extent populated scopes, infected models can talk to a existent local beginning of nitrate to the groundwater. Then once more, in less populated parts infected models do non by and large posture much of a danger to groundwater pollution ( Singhal, 2010 ) . The echt issue by high N fertiliser is submerged taint every bit good as an unnatural conditions alteration, eutrophication and well-being effects. Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( Ch4 ) is greenhouse gasses yet azotic oxide ( N2O ) is besides considered as a nursery gas. At the point when high N fertiliser is put underneath the surface, microscopic beings in dirt deteriorate N and produce azotic oxide. At that point, it goes non yet decided because gas is lighter than dirt ( Mukherjee, 2013 ) . Following echt issue is eutrophication. Eutrophication is phenomena that there is an inordinate sum of addendums in the lake or river and a few kinds of species to develop so good that different species can non populate comfortably. For case, when the nitrate fertiliser watercourses in waterways, it promotes development of small workss on the surface of the watercourse. These workss are on the surface so the workss in the underside of the watercourse can non acquire adequate daytime and make photosynthesis ( Herda, 2013 ) . Solution The submerged taint has legion echt issues so an single must avoid H2O taint. There are two attacks to prevent taint. The first is to see whether N fertiliser is genuinely needed or non. This helps persons lessen taint and salvage their resources. The 2nd manner is to works trees so that soil decomposition will non go on ( Bjerg, 2000 ) . Trees change C dioxide into oxide in their photosynthesis and ascribe to ease a unsafe atmospheric devotedness. They have to reassess whether high N compost is genuinely an ideal attack to force works development. In the event that they continue using fertilisers at this gait, the Earth will be increasingly harmed ( Chesworth, 2008 ) . To command taint because of these material workss in the zones around them the attach toing steps could be taken with a specific terminal end to construct long-run sustainability as a corporate process, which is entirely adjusted to the concern aims of being productive in the terminal, and procure big market portion. The H2O used as a portion of preparing of stuffs is lessened to an extended grade such that the emanating focal point is constrained to a labeled small volume of H2O and it does non get down impacting larger volume of H2O ( Marinov, 2010 ) . Decrease of the Procedure Chemicals The process chemicals make more than 90 to 93 per centum of the taint by different organisations. This likewise cuts down the coevals cost every bit far as the chemicals use. It might be accomplished through recycling different chemicals when procedures are finished. For Example: Acerb sodium carbonate is recouped from the mercerizing and sourcing and is therefore sifted and dialyzed so it might be reused ( Pepper, 2011 ) . The procedure alteration would include little accommodations in the different techniques utilized amid piecing within petition to do lesser taint and lessens unneeded wastage of H2O. Certain other chemicals can likewise be utilized amid piecing so that recovering those chemicals get to be simple and it in this mode could be utilized as a portion of farther collection processs ( Nair, 2004 ) . Through different alimentary direction undertakings, husbandmans are put to deathing best direction patterns that advance the proficiency of fertiliser usage by fiting supplement supply with merchandise necessities and to minimise alimentary loses. Throughout the old ages, there have been alterations in cultivating patterns to decrease nitrate filtering ( Giordano, 2007 ) . These integrated applications of N fertilisers, which include the best possible steps of N and other works addendums for overpowering harvest growing focused around dirt and works tissue proving. Soil moistness detectors are presently accessible that consider the persistent checking of dirt H2O position in the dirt. Fustigation has ended up more celebrated for its adept use of H2O and addendums, gigantically decreasing run outing and spillover of nitrates ( Chesworth, 2008 ) . Similarly, more late there have been new technological promotion is adopted, for illustration, the distant detection of in-season N position of harvests for auxiliary readying including maize and wheat, and is right off being developed for rock nutrients grown from the land crops and Prunus dulciss. Crop-particular and often even some other algorithms take into consideration exact and spatially variable application of the ideal N rate ( Mukherjee, 2013 ) . Furthermore, promotion is continuously made to concentrate nitrogen disposal zones guided by aeronautical symbolism, picture taking to catch N anxiousness, and detectors to calculate nitrogen application rates while tracking the field. As this new technology gets to be more settled and moderate, its appropriation in different portion of the universe will be loosely acknowledged ( Rail, 2000 ) . Evaluation Fertilizers are those chemical compounds that are peculiarly used to increase the growing rate of works and nutrients grown. These are usually connected either through the dirt or by foliar prolonging. They are besides connected to sea-going state of affairss. There are two types of fertilisers organic fertiliser and inorganic fertiliser and they are as follows ; Organic Fertilizers Organic fertilisers are â€Å" normally † happening compounds, which utilize natural process of composting or on a regular basis accessible mineral shops. These fertilisers can take more clip to interrupt down and be assimilated into the dirt and into the workss than inorganic fertiliser ( Pipkin, 2013 ) . On the other manus, the organic fertilisers enhance the well-being and productiveness of dirt and workss, as they present different critical addendums to back up the works growing. The organic foods expand the profusion of dirt life signifiers by giving natural affair and micronutrients to organic entities, for illustration, contagious mycorrhiza, which supports workss in retaining addendums ( Bjerg, 2000 ) . Inorganic Fertilizers Inorganic fertilisers are manufactured through complete chemical process, to boot using of course go oning, while synthetically modifying them for illustration concentrated ternary superphosphate. The inorganic manures has important constituents of Phosphorous, Nitrogen, and Potassium quickly accessible for workss without break down like in organic and workss can retain them immediately. Likewise, works could be given definite step of addendums that it needs maintaining in head the terminal end to be solid and less expensive to buy and speedy to use ( Nair, 2004 ) . Largely fertilisers contribute N ( N ) to the Earth and do issue of nitrate taint of H2O and taint of air with nitrate oxide, different oxides of N and base. These gasses help the nursery impact, worldwide warming as their spread outing focal points in the clime and to the annihilation of the stratospheric ozone bed, which secures the Earth from ultraviolet radiation ( Herda, 2013 ) . The manures and animal have created batch of issues of nitrate taint. Greenhouse gas of Azotic oxide ( N2O ) likewise helps the obliteration of the stratospheric ozone when changed over to azotic oxide. N2O is basically created in the life techniques of nitrification and gentrification. To construct the effectivity of N, manure utilizes through alterations, inhibitors of life techniques and in add-on better disposals to vouch expanded nourishment coevals while procuring the natural resources ( Marinov, 2010 ) . While proposed to progress dirts, overexploitation of fertilisers can impact the overall productiveness of harvests in a pessimistic mode. Since most merchandises are suited to a impersonal pH scope, dirt agitation from significant N inputs can equilibrate the expected impacts of fertiliser add-on. Most of the agribusiness experts say that legion countries would profit from application decreases of up to 50 to 60 per centum. China is the universe ‘s top purchaser of fertilisers and it is evaluated that 10 million dozenss of compost used in China ‘s waterways ( Zobisch, 2006 ) . As it was observed due to the extra usage of fertilisers, it increases the groundwater pollution to the extreme degree. It is a premier responsibility of each A ; every person to take some serious stairss in order to cut down the use of fertilisers to get the better of the job of groundwater pollution every bit much as possible. For that intent, legion ways that can help an person to do proper sch emes while utilizing different types of fertilisers because it can act upon the productiveness of harvests in both ways optimistic and pessimistic ( Hill, 2010 ) . Decision To reason this essay it was found that the fertilisers could be good to heighten the overall productiveness of harvests that will finally help the higher functionary of a state to carry through the demand of their citizens in an appropriate mode. On the other manus, it was noticed that the use of different sorts of fertilisers increase the groundwater pollution that will finally impact the overall environment of a part in a negative mode. Mentions Bjerg, P.L. , 2000.Groundwater 2000. CRC Press. Brebbia, C.A. , 2014.Water Pollution XII. WIT Press. Chesworth, W. , 2008.Encyclopedia of Soil Science. Springer Science A ; Business Media. Giordano, M. , 2007.The Agricultural Groundwater Revolution. CABI. Herda, D.J. , 2013.From Container to Kitchen. New Society Publishers. Hill, M.K. , 2010.Understanding Environmental Pollution. 3rd erectile dysfunction. Cambridge University Press. Komatina, M. , 2004.Medical Geology. Elsevier. Marinov, A.M. , 2010.Water Pollution X. WIT Press. Mukherjee, S. , 2013.Environmental Scenario in India. Routledge. Nair, P.K.R. , 2004.New Vistas in Agroforestry. Springer Science A ; Business Media. Pepper, I.L. , 2011.Environmental and Pollution Science. 2nd erectile dysfunction. Academic Press. Pipkin, B. , 2013.Geology and the Environment. 7th erectile dysfunction. Cengage Learning. Rail, C.D. , 2000.Groundwater Contamination: Management. CRC Press. Ramachandra, T.V. , 2006.Dirt and Groundwater Pollution from Agricultural Activities. TERI Press. Singhal, B.B.S. , 2010.Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks. Springer Science A ; Business Media. Tellam, J.H. , 2007.Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability. Springer Science A ; Business Media. Thangarajan, M. , 2002.Sustainable Development and Management of Groundwater Resources in Semi-Arid Regions with Particular Reference to Hard Rocks. CRC Press. Zobisch, M.A. , 2006.Resource Use and Agricultural Sustainability. kassel university imperativeness GmbH. How to cite Ground Water Pollution by Fertilizers, Essay examples

Victorian Texts

Question: To what extent do victorian texts provide a critique of imperialism and racial stereotypes? discuss in relation to The MoonStone by Wilkie Collins and The Adventure of Speckled Band by Arthur Conan Doyle. Answer: Introduction Imperialism is considered as the policy, which defines the extending rule of an empire or over a country. The policy is associated with the influence through immigration of the professions like doctors or military forces. The imperialism can create the linking between the uneven human and the territories. It is to be noted that the racial stereotype is mainly known as the public belief regarding a group of the people or an individual, which provides the judgment about the subject. The study will be evaluating the discussion regarding the critiques of imperialism and racial stereotypes provided in the Victorian texts. The Moon Stone by Wilkie Collins and The Adventure of Speckled Band by Arthur Conan are taken as the examples of such Victorian texts where the comparison and investigation will be applied. The representation of gender, class, sexuality, and race will be collaboratively associated in this study. Discussion The critiques regarding the imperialism and racial stereotype have been justified in the two Victorian texts. The first one is The Moon Stone by Wilkie Collins, which represents the critical analysis regarding the underpinned critiques. A little English Lady, Rachael Verinder received a big Indian Diamond on her 18th birthday as the gift from her uncle. Her uncle was a dishonest officer in British Army and he served India for several consecutive years. In order to secure the precious diamond, three Hindu Ministers devoted their lives. On her birthday evening, she wore the Moonstone Diamond, which was stolen from her bedroom at night. Three Indian jugglers were invited on her birthday party. Rachael was quite suspicious and furious at Frankline Blake who was directed to find the diamond. A famous detective Sergeant Cliff investigated the matter to find the culprit behind such actions. The investigation regarding such matter revealed the mystery that Ablewhite was the person who pocket ed the stone. However, at the end of the novel, it was found that the Moonstone was put in a secure place in India. It was even supposed to be in India and the end of the novel the delivery of the diamond became most justified. The second text is based on piece of work by Arthur Canon Doyle and the name of the text is The Adventure of the Speckled Band. In this particular novel, the life of a youthful woman named Helen has been portrayed. It has been seen that Helen was into several traumatized situation by thinking that her life can be spoiled by her step father. Sir Grimesby Roylott, the step father of Helen, was a doctor. He spent most of his working life in India and got married to Helens mother. Helen lost her elder sister just two years later of her mothers marriage. It is to be indicated that the Grimesby Roylott used to keep the different corporation at the estate and used to keep baboon and cheetah as his pets and his strange attitude used to make people more suspicious about him. Helen appointed two detectives; Holmes and Watson to identify the exact scenario caused the traumatised situation for Helen. They spend the whole night at Helens room where they heard a clanging noise along with a soft li ght through the ventilator. The action made the detectives take the serious action and they lighted the candle. Finally, they could discover that there was a poisonous snake named Speckled Band. When one of the detectives hit the snake, it attacked Roylott, who sent it to kill his step daughter, Helen. The writer, in his first story, focuses on the policy related to the imperialism in respective of Rachels uncle. Her uncle is a criminal who forcefully gains illegal access to the Indian Diamond. Since the past few years, it has been observed that it is the normal tendency of the people in higher hierarchy to access the economy of America. The change in the mentality of the American citizens has been the main reason behind the worlds fair of America. This situation results in the increment of the racial exploration at the host country. It also results in the formation of a new empire in the long run. The second story depicts about a crime scene where a doctor tried to remove his stepdaughters, reflecting on his materialistic and greedy nature. In the story, Roylott is a doctor who has served for several years in India. As mentioned in the will of his wife, the daughters would be getting the shared amount of her property if they were married. The doctor, thinking of it as an opportunity, tried to kill his daughters in order to get the entire property of his wife. Thus, through the story, the author helps in creating a sense of imperialism within the family where the father is eager to kill his daughters for the sake of money. Through this story, the author is able to explain the mentality and stereotypic status of an individual who is determining the competitions with his family with the money. The analysis of the imperialism in these two texts, the discussion of imperialism and racial stereotype have been justified. In discussing the first text, The Moonstone, the argument is based on the justification of using the imperialism. It is to be indicated that Collins has provided the implication of an imperialist context with the presentation of epilogue and prologue. The types are reflecting the structured used in the novel in Colonial India. It has been seen that the novel deals with more anti-imperialist context rather than being pro-imperialist. In explaining more specifically, it can be stated that the novel is mainly depending on several suppositions related to the imperialism. At the very beginning of the novel, the Indian culture was introduced as stereotypes and was respected for the strengthened implication of the religious convictions. The novel has highlighted the maintenance of efficiency and tenacity in reclaiming the diamond. However, the novel is associated with several characters like Miss Clack and Betteredge who presented the distrustful sentiments were often taken as the racists. They provide the initial conceptions about the Indians as being untrustworthy and dangerous. However, the justifications of the imperialism are also concentrating on the territories outside England. The conquered and domesticated outside territories were considered as dangerous and exotic. In keeping the concentration on this particular novel, it has been seen that the precious diamond was firstly stolen by an Englishman and finally again another English man stole the diamond. Hence, Collins subverted the imperialism expectations, which was highlighting the behavioural diversifications with non-English people. The second Victorian text defines the imperialism in different ways. In the short story, The Adventure of Speckled Band, Arthur Conan Doyle has been struggling with liberal imperialism and this is operated on different interconnected levels. As the traditional man in the Victorian imperialism, Arthur Doyle relished the outbursts of odds presented in the nineteenth century manliness. On the other hand, it has been seen that Doyle has promoted the ideal of English race against the European race and this presents the discriminations of colour. Even though he was the Irishman in the Middle English Society, he provided his centralized and provincial idealistic nature. It is to be indicated that the ideologists in the nineteenth century, the Victorian adventurous stories are revolving around guilt, colonial, and women on the marriage market. Moreover, in keeping the concentration on the Marxist literary theory, it has been seen that the writers are maintaining the social class and other un derpinned contexts. The story is focusing on the helplessness of both women and children in a society where the legal powers have been provided to the adult males. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle considered himself as the knight who behaved firmly in presenting the concept of Chivalry. The Adventure of the Speckled Band is a gothic tale, which includes several specified twists. The traditional gothic tropes are presenting the veil of a male protagonist and an evil antagonist. The study includes the association of the female heroin and other assassin scenarios. The twisted features raised against the superstitious tropes are showing the gothic traditional novel. The liberal use of traditional gothic is presenting the utilization of the imperialism in the nineteenth century adventurous stories. The representation of the male dominated society has been reflecting through the text is associated with the torturous and murder sequences more specifically. Arthur represented the apparent use of the supernatural consequences to relish the gothic mood of oppression. The description of Dr. Roylott along with his physical appearance was presenting reflection of an evil. Corrina Wagner mentioned in her essay, The dream of a Transparent Body: Identity, Science and the gothic nov el. In accordance with such comment, the presentation of Roylotts personality has been prominent in this short story. Conclusion It is to be indicated that the use of the stereotype is quite insensitive and inappropriate. The utilization of stereotype can lead the characters having mental or physical harassments. The study includes the justification of imperialism and racial stereotypes by analysing the texts in the Victorian age. The first novel, The Moonstone written by Wilkie Collins is presenting the imperialistic behaviour foreseen in the society. The precious diamond was stolen by a British man while at the end of the novel again it was stolen by the English man and placed to the relevant place. The second story is The Adventure of Speckled Band written by Arthur Canon Doyle and the story is representing the male dominated society in the nineteenth century. Both pieces of work have been providing the initial idea about the imperialism and the nature against race, class, sexuality and gender. Therefore, the justification of the subject matter has been properly mentioned in this study. References Berger, C. (2013).The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism, 1867-1914. University of Toronto Press. Carroll, D., Wheeler, M., (2014).The Victorian period: the intellectual and cultural context of English literature, 1830-1890. Routledge. Doyle, A. C. (2014).The Adventure of the Speckled Band. Arthur Conan Doyle. Dumett, Raymond E.Gentlemanly capitalism and British imperialism: The new debate on empire. Routledge, 2014. Gannon, C. (2015). Hinduism, Spiritual Community, and Narrative Form in The Moonstone.Dickens Studies Annual: Essays on Victorian Fiction,46(1), 297-320. Halsall, A. (2015). A Parade of Curiosities: Alan Moore's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen and Lost Girls as Neoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Victorian Pastiches.The Journal of Popular Culture,48(2), 252-268. Hamdan, M. (2015).Transportation is physical, communication is psychical: Female Sexuality and Modes of Communication in Nineteenth-Century Transatlantic Literature(Doctoral dissertation). Harrison, J. F. C. (2013).Late Victorian Britain 1875-1901. Routledge. Huang, B. B. F. (2015). Transported into the Bosom of the Empire?Rethinking How Arthur Conan Doyle Persuades His Readers of British Imperialism in The Speckled Band.Journalism,5(4), 194-205. Inge, W. R. (2015).The Victorian Age. Cambridge University Press. Lanning, K. (2012). 2011 VanArsdel Prize Essay Tessellating Texts: Reading The Moonstone in All the Year Round.Victorian Periodicals Review,45(1), 1-22. Matty, M. A., Roca, F. J., Cronan, M. R., Tobin, D. M. (2015). Adventures within the speckled band: heterogeneity, angiogenesis, and balanced inflammation in the tuberculous granuloma.Immunological reviews,264(1), 276-287. Seah, Y. J., Bond, F. (2014, May). Annotation of pronouns in a multilingual corpus of Mandarin Chinese, English and Japanese. InProceedings 10th Joint ISO-ACL SIGSEM Workshop on Interoperable Semantic Annotation(p. 82). Shires, L. M. (2012).Rewriting the Victorians: theory, history, and the politics of gender. Routledge. Snyder, J. (2013).Myths of empire: Domestic politics and international ambition. Cornell University Press. Yen, A. J. T. F. (2012). Sherlock Holmes and the case of the advanced persistent threat. Harrison, J. F. C. (2013).Late Victorian Britain 1875-1901. Routledge. Carroll, D., Wheeler, M., (2014).The Victorian period: the intellectual and cultural context of English literature, 1830-1890. Routledge. Inge, W. R. (2015).The Victorian Age. Cambridge University Press. Berger, C. (2013).The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism, 1867-1914. University of Toronto Press. Doyle, A. C. (2014).The Adventure of the Speckled Band. Arthur Conan Doyle. Matty, M. A., Roca, F. J., Cronan, M. R., Tobin, D. M. (2015). Adventures within the speckled band: heterogeneity, angiogenesis, and balanced inflammation in the tuberculous granuloma.Immunological reviews,264(1), 276-287. Shires, L. M. (2012).Rewriting the Victorians: theory, history, and the politics of gender. Routledge. Matty, M. A., Roca, F. J., Cronan, M. R., Tobin, D. M. (2015). Adventures within the speckled band: heterogeneity, angiogenesis, and balanced inflammation in the tuberculous granuloma.Immunological reviews,264(1), 276-287. Snyder, J. (2013).Myths of empire: Domestic politics and international ambition. Cornell University Press. Dumett, Raymond E.Gentlemanly capitalism and British imperialism: The new debate on empire. Routledge, 2014. Halsall, A. (2015). A Parade of Curiosities: Alan Moore's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen and Lost Girls as Neoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Victorian Pastiches.The Journal of Popular Culture,48(2), 252-268. Gannon, C. (2015). Hinduism, Spiritual Community, and Narrative Form in The Moonstone.Dickens Studies Annual: Essays on Victorian Fiction,46(1), 297-320. Lanning, K. (2012). 2011 VanArsdel Prize Essay Tessellating Texts: Reading The Moonstone in All the Year Round.Victorian Periodicals Review,45(1), 1-22. Hamdan, M. (2015).Transportation is physical, communication is psychical: Female Sexuality and Modes of Communication in Nineteenth-Century Transatlantic Literature(Doctoral dissertation). Yen, A. J. T. F. (2012). Sherlock Holmes and the case of the advanced persistent threat. Huang, B. B. F. (2015). Transported into the Bosom of the Empire?Rethinking How Arthur Conan Doyle Persuades His Readers of British Imperialism in The Speckled Band.Journalism,5(4), 194-205. Matty, M. A., Roca, F. J., Cronan, M. R., Tobin, D. M. (2015). Adventures within the speckled band: heterogeneity, angiogenesis, and balanced inflammation in the tuberculous granuloma.Immunological reviews,264(1), 276-287. Seah, Y. J., and Bond, F. (2014, May). Annotation of pronouns in a multilingual corpus of Mandarin Chinese, English and Japanese. InProceedings 10th Joint ISO-ACL SIGSEM Workshop on Interoperable Semantic Annotation(p. 82).

Special Occasion Speech Essay Example

Special Occasion Speech Essay Ladies and gentlemen: I’m sorry to drag you from your tasty wine and delicious dessert. There just a few things I need to say as a bridesmaid. This is the second time I ever be a bridesmaid, I hope I did the job alright last time and wish I could do better this time, although I know the former couple were still talking about me when they get divorced, but I’m pretty sure that got nothing to do with me or my speech. 8 years ago, there is a girl wearing a dirty white dress sitting in the corner of my kindergarten, that’s how I met her, and today, there is a girl wearing a fabulous wedding dress in front us, that’s the reason why I am here, speaking. We got along with each other pretty easy since we are extremely nice people, or maybe I’m just a little bit nicer than her. We were firmly believed that two of us gonna be the happiest couple in this world since the day we learned the word† couple† until both of us were told same gender marriage may not be accepted by everyone, no like today’s wedding which is not only blessed by God but also all the people here. 5 years ago, a guy who pretending really friendly â€Å"kidnaped† her and never let her go, even worse, I’m forced to be in this occasion and give everyone a speech about how â€Å"sad† I am after my best friend left me, then run into another person’s arms or bed, whatever. We will write a custom essay sample on Special Occasion Speech specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Special Occasion Speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Special Occasion Speech specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer That was my fault because I couldn’t find any cause why they may not be lawfully joined together, so I have to hold my peace forever. I think I know what is going to be happen next, the pretty girl in the wedding dress, and the handsome guy in the decent suit will just like the fairytale, live together happily ever after. So, everyone, raise your glasses, to this adorable couple.

Formulas for Celsius and Fahrenheit Conversions

Formulas for Celsius and Fahrenheit Conversions Fahrenheit and Celsius are two temperature measurements. Fahrenheit is most common in the United States, while Celsius is the norm in most other Western nations, though it is also used in the U.S. You can use tables that show common conversions  between Fahrenheit and Celsius and vice versa as well as online  converters, but knowing how to convert one scale to the other is important for obtaining accurate temperature readings. Formulas are the most common tools for conversions, but other methods allow you to do quick approximate conversions in your head. Understanding how the scales were invented and what they measure can make converting between the two a bit easier. History and Background Germany physicist  Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit  invented the Fahrenheit scale in 1724. He needed a way to measure temperature because he had invented the mercury thermometer 10 years earlier in 1714.  The Fahrenheit scale divides the freezing and boiling points of water into 180 degrees, where 32 F is the freezing point of water and 212 F is its boiling point. The Celsius temperature scale, which is also referred to as the centigrade scale, was invented several years later in 1741 by  Swedish astronomer  Anders Celsius.  Centigrade literally means consisting of or divided into 100 degrees:  The scale has 100 degrees between the freezing point (0 C) and boiling point (100 C) of water at sea level. Using Formulas To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, you can use two basic formulas. If you know the temperature in Fahrenheit and want to convert it to Celsius, first subtract 32 from the temperature in Fahrenheit and multiply the result by five/ninth. The formula is: C 5/9 x (F-32) where C is Celsius To clarify the idea, use an example. Suppose you have a temperature of 68 F. Follow these steps: 68 minus 32 is 365 divided by 9 is 0.5555555555555  Multiply the repeating decimal by 36Your solution is 20 Using the equation would show: C 5/9 x (F-32) C 5/9 x (68-32) C 5/9 x 36 C 0.55 x 36 C   19.8, which rounds to 20 So, 68 F is equal to 20 C. Convert 20 degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit to check your work, as follows: 9 divided by 5 is 1.81.8 multiplied by 20 is 3636 plus 32 68 Using the Celsius to Fahrenheit formula would show: F [(9/5)C] 32 F   [(9/5) x 20] 32 F [1.8 x 20] 32 F 36 32 F   68 Quick Approximation Method To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, you can also do a quick approximation of the temperature in Fahrenheit by doubling the temperature in Celsius, subtracting 10 percent of your result and adding 32. For example, suppose that you read that  temperature in a European city you plan to visit today is 18 C. Being used to  Fahrenheit, you need to convert to know what to wear for your trip. Double the 18, or  2 x 18 36. Take 10 percent of 36 to yield 3.6, which rounds to 4. You would then calculate: 36 - 4 32 and then add 32 and 32 to get 64 F. Bring a sweater on your trip but not a big coat. As another example, suppose the temperature of your European destination is 29 C. Calculate the approximate temperature in Fahrenheit as follows: 29 doubled 58 (or 2 x 29 58)  10 percent of 58 5.8, which rounds to 658 - 6 5252 32 84 The temperature in your destination city will be 84 F- a nice warm day: Leave your coat at home. A Quick Trick: Memorize Your 10 Blocks If accuracy is not critical, memorize the conversions from Celsius to Fahrenheit in increments of 10 C. The following table lists the range for the most common temperatures you might experience in many U.S. and European cities. Note that this trick only works for C to F conversions. 0 C - 32 F 10 C - 52 F 20 C - 68 F 30 C - 86 F 40 C - 104 F

Male Character Analysis in The Importance of Being Earnest

Male Character Analysis in The Importance of Being Earnest An earnest person is someone who practices diligence, seriousness, and above all sincerity. That being said, it is difficult to find a male character in Oscar Wilde’s   The Importance of Being Earnest who possesses these three qualities of earnestness despite the two leading male roles portray Ernest part-time in the comedic play. Take a closer look at the double life of respectable Jack Worthing and irreverent bachelor Algernon Moncrieff. Growing Up Jack Worthing The beginning of the play reveals that protagonist John Jack Worthing has a most unusual and amusing backstory. As a baby, he was accidentally abandoned in a handbag at a railway station, and a wealthy man, Thomas Cardew, discovered and adopted him as a child. Jack was named Worthing, after the seaside resort which Cardew visited. Worthing grew up to become a wealthy land-owner and investor, who was the legal guardian of Cardew’s granddaughter, Cecily. As the central character of the play, Jack might seem serious at first glance. He is far more proper and less ridiculous than his dandified friend, Algernon Algy Moncrieff.  In many productions of the play, the protagonist has been portrayed in a somber, straight-faced manner. Dignified actors such as Sir John Gielgud and Colin Firth have brought Jack to life on stage and screen, adding an air of dignity and refinement to the character. But, do not let appearances fool you. Witty Scoundrel Algernon Moncrieff One of the reasons Jack seems comparatively serious is due to the frivolous and playful nature of his friend, Algernon Moncrieff. Of all the characters in The Importance of Being  Earnest,  it is believed that Algernon is the embodiment of Oscar Wilde’s personality. Algernon exemplifies wit, satirizes the world around him, and views his own life as art’s highest form. Like Jack, Algernon enjoys the pleasures of the city and high society. (He also enjoys muffins and comes off as a bit of a glutton). Unlike Jack, Algernon loves to offer urbane social commentary about class, marriage, and Victorian society. Here are a few gems of wisdom, compliments of Algernon (Oscar Wilde): According to Algernon, relationships are â€Å"Divorces are made in heaven.† About modern culture, he comments, â€Å"Oh! It is absurd to have a hard and fast rule about what one should read and what one shouldn’t. More than half of modern culture depends on what one shouldn’t read.† One of his thoughts regarding family and living is rather insightful: â€Å"Relations are simply a tedious pack of people, who haven’t got the remotest knowledge of how to live, nor the smallest instinct about when to die.† Unlike Algernon, Jack avoids making strong, general commentary. He finds some of Algernons sayings to be nonsense. And when Algernon says something that rings true, Jack finds it socially unacceptable to be uttered in public. Algernon, on the other hand, likes to stir up trouble. Dual Identities The theme of leading double lives is commonplace throughout The Importance of Being Earnest. Despite his faà §ade of high moral character, Jack has been living a lie. His friend, Algernon, it turns out has a double identity as well. Jack’s relatives and neighbors believe him to be a moral and productive member of society. Yet, Jack’s first line in the play explains his true motivation for escaping his country home for the excitement of the city, he says, Oh pleasure, pleasure! What else should bring one anywhere? So, despite his stuffy outward appearance, Jack is a hedonist. He is also a liar. He has invented an alter-ego, a fictional brother named â€Å"Ernest.† His life in the country has been so tedious that he creates a reason to abandon his dreary and dutiful persona. Jack: When one is placed in the position of guardian, one has to adopt a very high moral tone on all subjects. It’s one’s duty to do so. And as a high moral tone can hardly be said to conduce very much to either one’s health or one’s happiness, in order to get up to town I have always pretended to have a younger brother of the name of Ernest, who lives in the Albany, and gets into the most dreadful scrapes. Algernon has also been leading a double life. He has created a friend named â€Å"Bunbury.† Whenever Algernon wants to avoid a boring dinner party, he says that Bunbury has fallen ill. Then Algernon cavorts off to the countryside, seeking amusement. During act two of the play, Algernon intensifies Jack’s conflict by posing as Jack’s delinquent brother Ernest. The Loves of Their Lives Algernon and Jack get entangled in their dual identities and the pursuit of their true loves. For both men, the Importance of Being Ernest is the only way to make it work with their hearts true desires. Jacks Love for Gwendolen Fairfax Despite his deceptive nature, Jack is sincerely in love with Gwendolen Fairfax, the daughter of the aristocratic Lady Bracknell. Because of his desire to marry Gwendolen, Jack is anxious to â€Å"kill off† his alter-ego Ernest. The problem is that Gwendolen thinks that Jack’s name is Ernest. Ever since she was a child, Gwendolen has been infatuated with the name. Jack decides not to confess the truth of his name until Gwendolen gets it out of him in act two: Jack: It is very painful for me to be forced to speak the truth. It is the first time in my life that I have ever been reduced to such a painful position, and I am really quite inexperienced in doing anything of the kind. However, I will tell you quite frankly that I have no brother Ernest. I have no brother at all. Fortunately for Jack, Gwendolen is a forgiving woman. Jack explains that he arranged a christening, a religious ceremony in which he will officially change his name to Ernest once and for all. The gesture touches Gwendolen’s heart, reuniting the couple. Algernon Falls for Cecily During their first encounter, Algernon falls in love with Cecily, Jack’s pretty eighteen-year-old ward. Of course, Cecily does not know Algernon’s true identity at first. And like Jack, Algernon is willing to sacrifice his namesake in order to win his love’s hand in marriage. (Like Gwendolen, Cecily is enchanted by the name â€Å"Ernest†). Both men go to great lengths in order to make their lies become the truth. And that is the heart of the humor behind The Importance of Being Earnest.

Analyze, Compare and Contrast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analyze, Compare and Contrast - Essay Example When Dexter Filkins Realized what had happened the initial thought she had was that she was in the third world. Dexter Filkins thought that people in the United States would think that it was the end of civilization as the worst has happened. However, Dexter Filkins understood that such things happened in the third world occasionally. In the third world cases such as earthquakes, plagues and famine were common where thousands of people would die. Dexter Filkins also had a similar experience on a bomb attack in Tel Aviv (Hampton, 2007). On the other hand, Katherine Finkelstein experienced the attacks. During the attack, she was in her gym and after the attack she moved to the scene of the attack. She got involved with the some of the survivors and interviewed them. She was scared and at some point she was screaming. Katherine Finkelstein was present when the building collapsed and at some point she was not able to tell what she saw or heard. Her situation was different from Dexter Filkins as things were hectic, and people were running away from the scene. However, she managed to get out of the scene alive and made the effort of writing small notes in her notebook about the events that happened. Her perception was either the world has ended or has changed. Later on Katherine Finkelstein was involved in the rescue operation of the individuals injured at the scene (Roleff, 2003). Both Katherine Finkelstein and Dexter Filkins were journalists. Dexter Filkins indicates that she realized she was not alone in the building as there was a photographer at the scene taking photos. She also indicates that she at one moment thought of the battery of the cell phone as she used to call the station frequently. Both of the journalists also had encounters with the police as there were restricted areas where they could not access. On the case of Katherine Finkelstein she was personally rescued by an FBI agent from the collapsing building (Hampton,

Power and Politics in an Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Power and Politics in an Organization - Essay Example For instance, leaders are assigned a higher level of power to enable them manage those who are below them. In principal, distribution of power in an organization is a tool to get things done. There has been a controversy as to whether there exist a clear cut boundary between organizational power and organizational politics in any particular business system. This paper will focus on the differences between organizational power and organizational politics. The role of leaders in an organizational set up is to control effectively those workers that are directly below them. Power has been identified as a critical tool that enables leaders to increase their dependability in their management roles. The best strategy for managers to optimize their power is to increase the workers' dependence on them. Dependence can be assessed on the extent to which the workers will turn to the managers for critical decisions or solutions for organizational problems. However, power can be categorized into t wo, either as ‘power over’ or the ‘power to’ depending on the purpose of its use (Clegg and Haugaard 2012, 115). The former has been used to express a negative power that is bureaucratic that is solely meant to increase the individualistic dominance. On the other hand, the ‘power to’ is provision of right to implement or act within one's capacity. In brief, organizational power can be defined as the capacity one party has to influence the behavior of another party in an organization. On the other hand, organizational politics has been often been termed as ‘power in action’ which defines informal attempt to influence the actions of individuals within an organization. The intention of a political action is to act outside the official role in an attempt to manipulate the natural balance of power within an organization. In essence, perpetrators of organizational politics are individualistic people whose intention is to define new autho rity boundaries in order to have control over the others in business set up (Mauws and Dyck 2005, 34). This kind of behavior is associated with the tendency of the key decision making tools in an organization to remain open to misinterpretation hence giving opportunists a loophole to exploit them in order to enjoy unwarranted merits. Organizational politics have been criticized as an ill motive that is meant to provide individualistic privileges that are not for the best interest of an organization. These two types of power are not only different in their motivation principles, but also the way they are acquired. The essence of management power is to promote the goals and objectives of the organization through team building and cohesive reasoning. This kind of power allows every employee to be answerable to a higher power while still acting within their power and ability to handle organizational roles that are defined by the position they hold. The motivation of this kind of power i s to ensure that there is one key of decision maker to avoid conflict of opinions within the organization. On the other hand, the political behaviour is meant to overturn the organizational power by exercising powers outside the roles defined by the organization. Its intention is to secure rights that benefit one person rather than the organization (Porter, Angle and Allen 2003, 22-27). While the organizational power is meant to manage the vital business resources to drive an organization to success, politicians will misinterpret their roles in order to hoard organizational privileges for their own benefit. Economists have identified numerous strategies that can be used for empowerment of people in a business system. One

Cruelty in animal testing Essay Example for Free

Cruelty in animal testing Essay Hobbes, the cat, has been under experimentation for most of his life. This is probably the last time that he will ever have to be experimented on again. Why? Because he is probably not going to make it through this time. The makers of Herbal Essences are about to force shampoo down his throat to see what happens to its organs. Even if the cat lives through the process, they will have to kill it to see which organs were affected by the toxic chemicals. If this was an actual human going through this deadly experiment, people would be in shock. Animal testing started numerous years ago to help provide humans with information. The process of animal testing is of great importance to scientists that work in testing for toxicity, in most cosmetics and personal care products that are made every year and are put into the market after being tested on animals. Animals in Product Testing stated, these products have gone through a long and complex testing process that leaves millions of animals mutilated, burned, poisoned and gassed in outmoded and unnecessary tests. From these different experiments, animals are often left with different diseases like Syphilis, Herpes, or AIDS (Animal Rights: Animal Testing). Manufacturers of these different products say that they are performing these tests to assure our safety for these products. They want to make sure that humans are not in any amount of danger (Animals in Product Testing). Animal testing is an unethical process, most of the testing is invasive and unnecessarily cruel torture to an innocent animal does that make us inherently evil even though many say we do the experiments for the greater good? Inflicting pain purposely is considered wrong in society and people are punished if caught. How can we justify the killing of an animal no matter how small and insignificant, in the larger scheme is there an alternative that we can use that will not cause pain and suffering and even save costs. Yes there are several different ways we can eliminate the use of animals in testing. There are certain types of animals that scientists use for certain types of experimentation. Some well-known animals that they use for testing are: cats, dogs, mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs, gerbils, sheep, llamas, cattle, owls, deer, monkeys and other primates. These are not, by any means, all of the animals that they use. These are just the most common (Animal Rights: Animal Testing). For example, the Draize Test is used on white albino rabbits (S. , Jeremy). They use white albino rabbits because of their sensitive eyes and also because the formation of their tear ducts stops tears from draining away all of the foreign substance (Animal Rights: Test ). In this process, scientists rub shampoo, soap, toothpaste, oven cleaner, lipstick, or lawn products into their gorgeous, red eyes. From this point, scientists record the damage that they observed. This test can last up to eighteen days with their eyelids held open with a clip. Many of the rabbits end up breaking their necks trying to escape from the horrifying pain. First of all, it is pointless to keep the product in their eyes for that long of a period. There is no way that even a child would have something like that in his/her eye for very long. The second reason this is unnecessary to do to a rabbit is that the eye tissue of a rabbit is completely different from humans. (S. , Jeremy). Instead of using the Draize test we can use these alternative that provide better results and less cost from the government and private companies. Nearly 50 different alternative methods and testing strategies have been developed, validated and/or accepted by international regulatory authorities. Using blood from human volunteers to test for the presence of fever-causing contaminants in intravenous medicines can save hundreds of thousands of rabbits each year from traditional pyrogen tests. EpiSkinâ„ ¢, EpiDermâ„ ¢ and SkinEthic—each composed of artificial human skin—can save thousands of rabbits each year from painful skin corrosion and irritation tests. The Bovine Corneal Opacity and Permeability Test and Isolated Chicken Eye Test use eyes from animals slaughtered for the meat industry instead of live rabbits to detect chemicals and products that are severely irritating to the eyes. The 3T3 Neutral Red Uptake Phototoxicity Test can replace the use of mice and other animals in the testing of medicines and other products for their potential to cause sunlight induced photo-toxicity. The Reduced Local Lymph Node Assay for skin allergy testing makes it possible to reduce animal use by up to 75 percent compared with traditional guinea pig and mouse tests. When testing to determine chemical concentrations that are deadly to fish and other aquatic life, use of the Fish Threshold Method can reduce the numbers of fish used by at least 70 percent compared with standard test methods. Why do companies even agree with animal experimentation? Some companies, like Clairol, demand that they do not use animal testing on their shampoo product, Herbal Essences. Even though they have cut down on animal testing, they have not eliminated the complete line of cosmetics and other products of animal experimentation (Consumer Companies Animals). There are also some companies, like Mothers Bath products, that do test on animals. The only difference is they shampoo their own dogs to see how it smells after being cleaned off with water. This type of procedure is not actual animal testing. The reason being is because it is not deathly and does not harm the animals in any way. Mothers Products inventor did mention, Beyond these happy volunteers WE DO NOT TEST ON ANIMALS. All other product testing is on ourselves, friends, family. This is the best type of testing to do, on real human beings (Mothers Cupboard Bath). The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has different laws about the safety of human’s health. In other words, the FDA and the different laws agree with animal testing. The FDA supports two different acts, the Animal Welfare Act and the Public Health Service Policy and Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (Animal Testing). The Animal Welfare Act is to assure the health of humane care and the management of dogs, cats and other certain animals that are used for research and experimentation. As well as to make sure that humane treatment of animals during the transport to help protect the owners of the animals from theft (U. S. Fish ). The Public Health Service Policy and Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals is a law that assures animal care for farm animals, mice and rats (Public Health ). The FDA feels that if animals are used instead of actual human beings, then there is no risk of taking a humans life. If animals are put under experimentation, then the loss of an animal wouldnt be as devastating as an actual person. Other companies like: Arm Hammer, Gillette, Procter Gamble, Colgate-Palmolive, SmithKline, Beecham, and Unilever still test their products on animals (S. , Jeremy). Another element why animal experimentation is wrong is because in multiple ways, it is pointless. The reason that companies even test their products on animals is because they are supposedly watching out for our safety. Most toxic products are tested on different animals. Some toxic products that are used are: soaps and detergents, oven cleaners, and toilet cleaner, etc. What is wrong with this picture? The internet site titled, Animals in Product Testing stated, no amount of animal testing can change the fact that many of these products are harmful if ingested or used in a way not intended by the manufacturer. In other words, there is no reason to force animals to swallow any toxic products, when no matter what, they would harm someone if they digested it (Animal in Product Testing). Also, many different types of drugs are very useful to human beings, but are very dangerous and deadly to animals. For example, Penicillin can help peoples lives, but actually kills guinea pigs. Another drug is Aspirin, which, in fact, causes birth defects in mice, monkeys, rats, cats, guinea pigs and dogs. Obviously, this is not a problem toward humans (Animal Rights: Animal Testing). There are many reasons why animal experimentation is meaningless, but, in many ways, it can be good according to Jack Botting and Adrian Morrison. Both of these scientist claim that animal experimentation is essential because that is the only way that cures can be invented for many diseases. Also, many other medicines have been developed through animal testing. Morrison and Botting feel that there is no difference between humans and animals. Experimenting on animals helps store precise information for humans (Botting, 78). Animal testing is also unnecessary because there is not a law saying that you have to test any product on animals (Stevens). The only product that is forced by the law, to test on animals, are certain types of chemicals and pharmaceutical products (S. , Jeremy). To think that people are so cruel against animals, and there is no reason for it. Karen Lee Stevens stated, Sophisticated alternatives to the use of animals in consumer product testing are readily available. So, from the Stevens statement, there are obviously many other ways, besides animal testing, which can be used to test different products. These different alternatives could possibly be more effective, be a better indicator for humans, have much quicker results, and it would not be involved in any kind of animal unkindness. So, why dont all companies realize that they dont have to do testing on innocent animals? There are two main reasons why it is so hard for manufacturers to use alternatives: the fright for human safety and the fright of product  assurance. The first company that changed their ways of animal testing was Revlon Cosmetics. In 1979, Revlon gave $750,000 to the Rockefeller University to research different alternatives to test their products. Different organizations such as the John Hopkins Center for the Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Toiletry and Fragrance Association, the Cosmetic, the International Foundation for Ethical Research, and the Soap and Detergent Association started their own research to develop different alternatives. While this research is going on, the amount of animal testing increases so that they can guarantee consistent results with the new alternatives (Stevens). The final reason why animal testing is so cruel is because innocent animals are being abused without reason. For example, many animals that are used in all of these experiments are animals that have either been stolen or are from different animals shelters. From there, they are taken to animal testing sites. All of these animal experimentation sites have been inspected, but just because the research centers are legalized, does not mean that animals arent being abused. According to Jeremy S. , A research scientist at Huntingdon Life Sciences was recently caught on videotape punching four puppies repeatedly in the face. This so-called scientist is trying to prevent humans from danger by punching puppies. The scientist tried to back up his crime by stating that he was only trying to do the puppies a favor because the product that he just made them sniff was giving them terrible effects on the body (S. , Jeremy). There is no reason to do this to such young animals, or any animals for that manner. Today, many companies have turned from animal testing. They now feel that animal experimentation is a cruel process that leaves innocent animals dead for no apparent reason. Although many companies have agreed that it is an absurd process, animal testing still is a huge part of product testing (Animals in Product Testing). After all of the reasons of why animal testing is ridiculous, hopefully a law will stop the cruel process. Although, like stated in the previous paragraph, many companies have stopped these practices and tests, there are many that still practice this process. Hobbes, the cat, could still be alive today if it wasnt for the companies that still believe that it is okay to test animals with products. A question that is brought up in many peoples mind is, why would animal testing still be going on if there a Overall, animal testing is expensive, time-consuming, unpredictable, and not easily reproducible from one lab to another (i. e. , results lack reliability). Because of their expense, cumbersomeness, and scientific limitations, animal tests have not adequately addressed the vast number of chemicals already in commercial use, nor the estimated 700 new ones introduced every year. According to Dr. Thomas Hartung, director of the Johns Hopkins University Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, out of â€Å"some 100,000 chemicals in consumer products,†¦only about 5,000 have had significant testing so far because no one has the capacity for experiments using standard methods involving animals. †[7] While all new products must be tested for safety, using animals to assess human health risks is inefficient, unreliable, and has limited—if any—predictive value for what will happen in humans. Thankfully, private industry and a growing number of federal agencies are now acknowledging the superiority of alternative methods for safety testing. While alternative methods have not received the full scientific, industry, and government support that they deserve, progress is being made, as the development of alternative techniques becomes more widely recognized as a legitimate and important area of basic and applied scientific investigation. For example, one traditional criticism of in vitro replacement alternatives was their inability to mimic or reproduce the consequences of long-term, chronic human exposure to toxic substances. This is no longer the case. As cell culture technology has evolved, it is now possible to maintain in vitro systems for sufficiently longer periods of time—weeks or months. It is not necessary to maintain such cultures for years, as is done with some typical chronic animal tests. Long-term cell and tissue culture techniques can now allow in vitro studies of the effects of chronic, repeated exposure to toxic substances, as well as the recovery from such exposure in a shorter period of time.

Liberty Defined Essay -- Slavery

Liberty, can be defined as freedom from control, captivity, or restraint; where all are equal and have the ability to do whatever is in their will, that none can be hindered by race, class or sex. While freedom is mostly brought within the ideas of slavery, as is within the contexts of Olaudah Equiano and Phillis Wheatley's works, it can also be that of women from their husbands and places in life, as with Mary Astell's work. Equiano has a firsthand account on the effects of slavery and the necessity of freedom. While describing a childhood that was ended quickly by being snatched and placed into slavery, his story is a reflection of one within many stories that are no doubt similar in fashion. The most memorable, and possibly disturbing narration involves his experiences within the slave ship. "One day, when we had a smooth sea, and a moderate wind, two of my wearied countrymen, who were chained together (I was near them at the time), preferring death to such a life of misery, somehow made through the nettings, and jumped into the sea: immediately another quite dejected fellow, who, on account of his illness, was suffered to be out of irons, also followed their example; and I believe many more would soon have done the same, if they had not been prevented by the ship’s crew, who were instantly alarmed. Those of us that were the most active were, in a moment, put down under the deck; and there was such a noise and confusion amongst the people of the ship as I never heard before, to stop her, and get the boat to go out after the slaves. However, two of the wretches were drowned, but they got the other, and afterwards flogged him unmercifully, for thus attempting to prefer death to slavery." (Equiano 749) It is almost unbeliev... ... and unsubstantiated. Works Cited Astell, Mary. "A Serious Proposal To The Ladies." The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: The Restoration And The Eighteen Century. Joseph Black [et all]. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2006. Print. Pages 291-296. Astell, Mary. "A Reflections Upon Marriage." The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: The Restoration And The Eighteen Century. Joseph Black [et all]. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2006. Print. Pages 297-301. Equiano, Olaudah. "Olaudah Equiano." Handout. Print. Equiano, Olaudah. "Interesting Narrative Of The Life Of Olaudah Equiano." The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: The Restoration And The Eighteen Century. Joseph Black [et all]. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 2006. Print. Pages 743-750. Wheatley, Phillis. "Poems On Various Subjects." Handout. Print.

A Review of Dhoom III Essay

Saahlr (Aamlr Khan) Is a talented magician who runs an Indian circus in Chicago, once run by his magician father Iqbal Haroon Khan (Jackie Shroff), also using his unique skills to routinely rob a bank that he holds responsible for his father’s suicide many years ago. He must stay out of the reach of surly cop Jai Dikshit (Abhishek Bachchan) and his motor-mouth sidekick Ali (Uday Chopra), who have been dispatched to the Windy City of Chicago to crack the case. Resting to the belief about the two cracking the case to everyone’s delight, they are fancied with the best forces the Bank’s Chief Anderson (Andrew Bicknell) and the Chicago Police can offer. Here they meet Jai’s apprentice Victoria (Tabrett Bethell), who becomes their partner In crime and their swift support to resolve the case. The very typical Ali falls for the girl Ike he does for every girl he meets and scenes are somewhat directed to be comic, but fails big time. Amidst everything going hazy, nters Aaliya (Katrina Kalf) shown desperate enough to be considered In Saahlr’s troupe. She dances, sings, performs arial gymnastics, but acts. Despite being the lead actress as presented by the promotions, Katrina’s character has a very little to do in the story as most of the spaces she Is seen Is only utilized as dummy for navigating the story further. Aside from some genuinely cool moments like Aamir’s getaway on a Chicago waterfront or the climax staged on a dam, Dhoom 3 doesn’t offer very much by way of novelty or Inventiveness. What’s more. he film’s middle half gets weighed down by Saahir’s dreary revenge agenda, which is the sole motive behind the story and gets melodramatically derailed once a woman enters the fray.. The film Is missing the thrills that went hand-in-hand with the outrageous heists. screeching tires, and bad guy attitude associated with Dhoom. It’s hard to go into any more detail about the plot without giving away the film’s big twist, which reveals itself right before interval. To drive the story forward, Jal befriends Samar, the big twist and ricks him to get even with Saahir only to realize his poop, as he is countered by Saahir. The climax included long night chase In the Chicago downtown street to the Dam, where final scene takes place. In all this Dhoom franchise lacks the â€Å"Dhoom† factor that the audience might want to be entertained with and can be said to be an overload of chase, and of course Jai-All’s slapstick comedy and hammy acting. Though tne DacKgrouna music complements tne actlon sequences, songs I n a a ‘t nave tnelr job at place. Overall an average hindi action film without a bound plot.

Project on Spy Ear

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION, CIRCIT DIAGRAM AND WORKING INTRODUCTION Spy ear is the devices which converts low power audio signal to high power signal and gain. It can be used in Theaters , Concert halls, Lecture rooms, Trains, Court houses, Conference rooms, Embassies, Gaming facilities, Recording studios, Aircraft , railways ,bus station etc. With this sound amplifier, you can now hear things crystal clear that you could never hear before. Spy ear is very easy to use, just put the ear buds in your ears – aim the Spy Ear towards what you want to hear and things are heard crystal clear.Spy Ear has adjustable volume control, which amplifies sound up to 50 decibels. Spy ear is also great for watching TV late at night, while your spouse sleeps you can keep the sound on the TV way down and still hear clearly. In spy ear circuit the most important part which is used to amplify the ckt is An IC named LM386N, which is a low sound amplifier, it amplifies the sound which is received by the condenser mic connected in the ckt. The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications.The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the addition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value from 20 to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 mill watts when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation. Spy ear is widely using in the spy works. Many spy agencies, National Security Agencies using both wired and wireless spy ears to hear the private conversation and to cought any illegal person doing any illegal work.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM [pic] WORKING What binoculars do to improve your vision, this personal sound enhancer circuit does for listening. This lightweight gadget produces an adjustable gain on sounds picked up from the built-in high-sensiti vity condenser microphone. So you can hear what you have been missing. With a 6V (4? 1. 5V) battery, it produces good results. a small signal amplifier is built around transistor BC547 (T1). Transistor T1 and the related. components amplify the sound signals picked up by the condenser microphone (MIC).The amplified signal from the preamplifier stage is fed to input pin 3 of IC LM386N (IC1) through capacitor C2 (100nF) and volume control VR1 (10-kilo-ohm log). A decoupling network comprising resistor R5 and capacitor C3 provides the preamplifier block with a clean supply voltage. Audio amplifier IC LM386N (IC1) is designed for operation with power supplies in the 4-15V DC range. It is housed in a standard 8-pin DIL package, consumes very small quiescent current and is ideal for battery-powered portable applications. The processed output signal from capacitor C2 goes to one end of volume control VR1.The wiper is taken to pin 3 of LM386N audio output amplifier. Note that the R6-C4 netw ork is used to RF-decouple positive-supply pin 6 and R8-C7 is an optional Zobel network that ensures high frequency stability when feeding an inductive headphone load. Capacitor C6 (22? F, 16V) wired between pin 7 and ground gives additional ripple rejection. The output of LM386N power amplifier can safely drive a standard 32-ohm monophonic headphone/earphone. Assemble the circuit on a small general-purpose PCB and house in a suitable metallic enclosure with an integrated battery holder and headphone/ earphone socket as shown in .Fit the on/off switch (S1), volume control (VR1) and power indicator (LED1) on the enclosure. Finally, fit the condenser microphone (MIC) on the front side of the enclosure and link it to the input of the preamplifier via a short length of the shielded wire. CHAPTER 2 COMPONENTS AND TOOLS USED COMPONENT USED COMPONENT NAMESPECIFICATION QUANTITY RESISTANCES R14. 7K? 1 R2330K? 1 R333? 1 R4680? 1 R5150? 1 R610? 1 R71K? 1 R810? , 0. 5W1 CAPACITANCES C110n(Non P olar)1 C2100n(Non Polar)1 C347 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C41000 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C54. 7 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C622 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C7100n(Non Polar)1C8100 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 C9100n(Non Polar)1 C10470 µ(elec. ) , 16V(Polar)1 VOLUME CONTROLLER VR110K? 1 TRANSISTOR T1BC5471 ICLM386N1 IC BASE8-PIN1 LED1 CONDENSER MIC1 EARPHONE32? 1 BATTERIES1. 5V4 BATTERIES HOLDER1 HOLDER CAP1 SWITCH1 PCBSINGLE SIDED1 TOOLS USED IN PCB DESIGNING COMPONENTQUANTITY SAW1 FeCl31 [pic] MULTIMETER1 [pic] HAND DRILLER1 [pic] SOLDERING IRON1 [pic] SOLDERING PASTE1 [pic] SOLDERING WIRE1 [pic] CHAPTER 3 PREPARATION AND PROCESS OF PCB DESIGNING Materials: ? Liquid solutions:- Ferric Chloride (Fecl3), Ferric chloride solution,  about 1 liter/ 0,26 gallons Lacquer thinner Safety solutions:- Safety goggles, Soft plastic brush, Clothes iron, Rubber gloves ? layout solutions:- Software for drawing layout. Like:- 1. P-Spice 2. ExpressPCB 3. PCB Wizard 3. 50 Pro 4. EDWinXP ? Good quality magazine pages (A4 Size) (Glossy paper), ? Laser printer ? Scrubbing pad ? Good ventilation ? Paper towel, ? Tin snips ? Drill or rotary tool ? PCB drill bits ? 5-gallon plastic pail full of water ? Single sided 1 ounce copper clad ? A plastic container the board will fit in PREPARATION Print the bottom side layer on a piece of paper from a high quality magazine or Glossy paper.Use one actual page from the magazine or Glossy paper, the thicker and shinier the magazine paper the better, but do not use the cover. You must use a laser printer, not an inkjet. If your printer uses ink cartridges and not toner cartridges, it will not work. If you do not have a laser printer, you can work around this by printing to white paper and using a photocopier set to the darkest setting to copy the layout to the magazine paper. If the paper jams in the printer, you are not using a thick-enough magazine pages. Again, do not use the magazine covers, as they do not work.Magazine pages are used because they work well, and they are cheap! The reason they work is because the paper is very glossy and the toner does not adhere well to the glossy pages. The printing used on the magazine page is ink and it does not come off, but toner does. Toner  is actually a plastic polymer, and different toners may yield varied results. In our experience, a genuine HP toner cartridge was used with great success. The sole purpose of the toner is the protect the copper below it from etching away; you only want the uncovered areas to etch. Next, wash your hands to remove any oils.Keep handling to a minimum once the pages are printed and do not touch the laser printing with your fingers; this could get oils on the printing. Keep pages as flat as possible. [pic][pic] Very carefully, remove the copper clad from the packaging. Do not touch the copper surface for the same reason as above. You can cut the copper clad to size using a tin snip if needed. Use the scrubbing pad to gently buff the surface. Do not use steel wool because it will embed steel into the copper. Clean off the residual dust with a slightly damp paper towel. [pic] Find a hard, very flat, sturdy, heat resistant surface.Empty the water out of the clothes iron and set the iron on the hottest setting. Allow the iron to get hot. [pic] This is both side of a piece of copper clad. Place the blank side facing down and copper side facing up. Align printing/paper onto copper clad board with the printing facing the copper. Do not allow it to move. [pic] [pic] Firmly press the iron onto the back of the magazine paper, sandwiching it between the copper clad and the iron. Pressing hard without moving the iron, hold the iron perfectly still for one full minute. Do not move the iron at all during this minute, and push hard, really hard!Then, for four more minutes, slowly move the iron around making sure to put a lot of pressure on the paper, but not allowing the paper to slide on the copper. When done, let the board fully cool b efore you move it at all. This will allow the toner to adhere to the copper and prevent you from being burned. Put the board in cold water and let soak for five minutes. After five minutes, try to peel the wet paper from the board leaving only the toner/print from your laser printer. Only the toner should be left adhering to the copper. If the paper does not come off easily, let it soak in the water for a while longer.If necessary, rub with your finger to remove any paper, leaving only the toner. It’s ok if there are a few excess paper fibers stuck to the toner. [pic][pic] [pic] If you find not every trace adhered to the copper clad or it is misaligned, use lacquer thinner and paper towel to clean the toner from the copper board and start over. If the traces look good then move on. Inspect the traces carefully, however, because what you see now will be your finished product. [pic] In a well-ventilated area with a fan, add hot water to a plastic container. Gently pour in 1-cup Fecl3, to create the etching solution.Always wear goggles, gloves, and do not inhale the fumes. Do not use any metal containers, measuring cups, stainless steel sinks, or tools with this mixture as this mixture will aggressively etch metal. Acid safety, think â€Å"triple A†, for Always Add the Acid, it’s whatever is in the container that will end up splashing. This etching solution, while made with common chemicals, should command respect. It is dangerous to you and surroundings treat it with respect. Put the board copper side up in the plastic container filled with etching solution. Use a soft plastic brush to gently wipe the board.You will notice the copper begin to dissolve. It takes about 3-4 minutes to get all the exposed copper dissolved. You just have to watch to make sure it is gone in all areas between the traces. Do not leave the board in the etching mix for too long as the traces will dissolve under the toner that is protecting them. [pic]  [pic] Use lac quer thinner (paint thinner and acetone do not work well) and a paper towel to remove any toner left on top of the copper traces. Tinning prevents the copper from oxidizing, which can make it hard to solder to in the future.If you choose, you can tin all the traces with solder and a soldering iron now. This actually makes drilling much easier because it helps to center the drill bit [pic] Print out the top side silkscreen layer on magazine paper and iron this onto the top side, using the same processes as above. Again, run under water and peel off the paper. Now you have the component ID’s on the top side. For layout design we use software: 1. P-Spice 2. ExpressPCBSetup 3. PCB Wizard 3. 50 Pro 4. EDWinXP Drill all the holes for the through-hole parts using the correct size PCB drill bit and rotary tool.Drill large mounting holes with a normal drill. PCB drill bits are carbide and made to drill through fiber glass that would quickly dull standard bits. There are a few very com mon sizes of bits and these are often sold in packs. We use . 0260? for IC holes and . 0310? for resistors and caps. [pic] CHAPTER 4 RESISTANCES [pic] INTRODUCTION A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the onstant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R further â€Å"resists† the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law: [pic] UNITS The ohm (symbol: ? ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units of Milliohm (1 m? = 10? 3 ? ), Kilohm (1 k? = 103 ? ), Megohm (1 M? = 106 ? ) are also in common usage. Resistance is Determined partially by Compo sition,  and is inversely proportional to Cross Sectional Area. [pic]SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTORS In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances: [pic] [pic] As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R is given by NR. Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however the currents through them add.The conductance of the resistors then adds to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed: [pic] [pic] The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines â€Å"||† (as in geometry) as a simplified not ation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated using: [pic] As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance R, is given by R/N.A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance, [pic] [pic] POWER DISSIPATION The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is calculated as: [pic] The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral of the power over that period of time: [pic] Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation.The vast majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorbs much less than a watt of electrical power and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt. Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies, power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater.Power resistors are physically larger and tend not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25  °C in free air. Inside an equipment case at 60  °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may prematurely fail.TYPES OF RESISTER Fixed  resistors Variable resistors FIXED RESISTORS The diagram shows the construction of a carbon film resistor. During manufacture, a thin film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between the two ends of the rod is as close as possibl e to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added; the resistor is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate the resistor value.Carbon film resistors are cheap and easily available, with values within  ±10% or  ±5% of their marked or ‘nominal' value. Metal film and metal oxide resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more accurately to within  ±2% or  ±1% of their nominal value. There are some differences in performance between these resistor types, but none which affect their use in simple circuits. COLOUR CODING OF THE RESISTERS [pic] [pic] [pic] VARIABLE RESISTORS Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along th track as you turn the spindle.The track may be made from carbon, cermets (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. TYPE OF VARIABLE RESISTORS Linear (LIN) and Logarithmic (LOG) tracks Rheostat Potentiometer Presets LINEAR (LIN) AND LOGARITHMIC (LOG) TRACKS Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper. Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance!This arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a logarithmic response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to connect the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the spindle increases the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should swap the connections to the ends of the track. RHEOSTAT This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor.Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance. [pic] If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals are connected! However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the mounting but it serves no function electrically. POTENTIOMETER Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected.These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used. [pic] PRESETS Multitier presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one en d of the track to the other, giving very fine control. [pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |Preset |Presets |Multitier preset | |(open style) |(closed style) | | | | | | | | | |CHAPTER 5 CAPACITANCES [pic] INTRODUCTION |A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. In its simplest form, a capacitor consists of two | |conducting plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. Capacitance is directly proportional to the surface areas of the plates, and is | |inversely proportional to the plates' separation. | |Capacitance also depends on the dielectric constant of the dielectric material separating the plates. | | |Capacitance calculated as XY x 10Z  for the numbers XYZ and the letter indicates the tolerance J, K or M for  ±5%,  ±10% and  ±20% respectively and unit is in pF. | |The standard units of Capacitance, | |farad: F   | |microfarad:  µF (1  µF = 10-6 F) |nanofarad: nF (1 nF = 10-9 F)   | |microfara d: pF (1 pF = 10-12 F) | | | | | | | |FOR CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL | |Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up.Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the | |schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area. | |[pic] | | | |FOR CAPACITORS IN SERIES | |Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area, adds up.The capacitors each store instantaneous charge | |build-up equal to that of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor according to the | |inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor  smaller  than any of its components. | |[pic] | |Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are | |base d on plate separation, add up.In such an application, several series connections may in turn be connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to | |maximize the energy storage utility of each capacitor without overloading it. | |Series connection is also used to adapt  electrolytic capacitors  for AC use. | | | |CAPACITOR MAY BE: | |Polarized | |Unpolrized | |POLARIZED CAPACITOR(VALUE MAX THAN 1  µF) | pic] Circuit symbol:   Ã‚  [pic] ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and  they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors;  axial  where the leads are attached to each end (220 µF in picture) and  radial  where both leads are at the same end (10 µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electr olytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating.The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits. TANTALUM BEAD CAPACITORS Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a small size. Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full.However older ones use a color-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of color for the number of zeros to give the value in  µF. The standard  colour code  is used, but for the spot,  grey  is used to mean ? 0. 01 and   white  means ? 0. 1 so that values of less than 10 µF can be shown. A third color stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow 6. 3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: ‘when the spot is in sight, the positive is to the right'.For example:   Ã‚  blue, grey, black spot  Ã‚   means 68 µF for example:   Ã‚  blue, grey, white spot  Ã‚   means 6. 8 µF For example:   Ã‚  blue, grey, grey spot  Ã‚   means 0. 68 µF UNPOLARIZED CAPACITOR(MAX. VALUE UPTO 1  µF) [pic] Circuit symbol:   Ã‚  [pic] Small value capacitors are Unpolrized and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling system s!Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be! For example  0. 1  means 0. 1 µF = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:   For example:   Ã‚  4n7  means 4. 7nF. POLYSTYRENE CAPACITORS This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene! ) so you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint. | | | | | | | VARIABLE CAPACITORS Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called ‘tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF  =  0. 0001 µF). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments – see below) as well as the main variable capacitor. Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor.Variable capacitors are  not  normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time period. [pic][pic] Variable Capacitor Symbol Variable Capacitor | | | | | | | | TRIMMER CAPACITORS Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors.They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool wil l slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer! Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of  presets  which are miniature variable resistors. [pic] [pic] Trimmer Capacitor Symbol Trimmer Capacitor CAPACITOR NUMBER CODE A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: †¢ the 1st number is the 1st digit, †¢ the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, †¢ The 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF. †¢ Ignore any letters – they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.For example:   Ã‚  102  Ã‚  Ã‚  means 1000pF = 1nF   Ã‚  (not 102pF! ) For example:   Ã‚  472J  means 4700pF = 4. 7nF (J means 5% tolerance). |Color Code | |Color |Number | |Black | 0 | |Brown |1 | |Red |2 | |Orange |3 | |Yellow |4 | |Green |5 | |Blue |6 | |Violet |7 | |Grey |8 | |White |9 | CAPACITOR COLOR CODE A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are many still around.The colors should be read like the resistor code, the top three color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). For example: Brown, black, orange  Ã‚   means 10000pF = 10nF = 0. 01 µF. Note that there are no gaps between the colors bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band. For example: Wide red, yellow  Ã‚   means 220nF = 0. 22 µF. CHAPTER 6 TRANSISTORS INTRODUCTION Transistors amplify current, A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE. [pic] [pic] Transistor circuit symbols Types of transistor | | | | There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors. The leads are labeled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E). These terms efer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels. CONNECTING Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on. If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or strip board layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue to identify the leads. The dr awings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles.Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above. [pic] TRANSISTOR CODES There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK: ? Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478 the first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor.There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (e. g. BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable. ? Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings. ? Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053The initial ‘2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. CHOOSING A TRANSISTOR Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum power rating. NPN transistors | |Code | |PNP transistors | |Code |Structure | |Case  style |There is a diagram showing the lead s for some of the most common case styles in the Connecting section above.This information | | |is also available in suppliers' catalogues. | |IC max. |Maximum collector current. | |VCE max. |Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction. | | |You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits. | |hFE |This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value varies | | |from transistor to transistor – even for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. | | The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for | | |example ‘[email  protected]' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since the gain is | | |roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to | | |experts. | | | | | |Why hFE? | |It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their own symbol. There are too many to explain here. | |Ptot max. |Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note that a heat  sink will be required to achieve the maximum | | |rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as amplifiers; the power is roughly IC ? VCE. For transistors | | |operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max. is more important. | |Category |This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have | | |separate tables for different categories. | |Possible  substitutes |These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may | | |have a different case style so you will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board. | THE NPN TRANSISTORIn the previous tutorial we saw tha t the standard Bipolar Transistor or BJT comes in two basic forms. An NPN (Negative-Positive-Negative) type and a PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive) type, with the most commonly used transistor type being the NPN Transistor. We also learnt that the transistor junctions can be biased in one of three different ways – Common Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector. In this tutorial we will look more closely at the â€Å"Common Emitter† configuration using NPN Transistors with an example of the construction of a NPN transistor along with the transistors current flow characteristics is given below. pic] THE COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION As well as being used as a semiconductor switch to turn load currents â€Å"ON† or â€Å"OFF† by controlling the Base signal to the transistor in ether its saturation or cut-off regions, NPN Transistors can also be used in its active region to produce a circuit which will amplify any small AC signal applied to its Base terminal with the Emitter grounded. If a suitable DC â€Å"biasing† voltage is firstly applied to the transistors Base terminal thus allowing it to always operate within its linear active region, an inverting amplifier circuit called a single stage common emitter amplifier is produced.One such Common Emitter Amplifier configuration of an NPN transistor is called a Class A Amplifier. A â€Å"Class an Amplifier† operation is one where the transistors Base terminal is biased in such a way as to forward bias the Base-emitter junction. The result is that the transistor is always operating halfway between its cut-off and saturation regions, thereby allowing the transistor amplifier to accurately reproduce the positive and negative halves of any AC input signal superimposed upon this DC biasing voltage. Without this â€Å"Bias Voltage† only one half of the input waveform would be amplified.This common emitter amplifier configuration using an NPN transistor has many applications but is commonly used in audio circuits such as pre-amplifier and power amplifier stages. With reference to the common emitter configuration shown below, a family of curves known as the Output Characteristics Curves relates the output collector current, (Ic) to the collector voltage, (Vce) when different values of Base current, (Ib) are applied to the transistor for transistors with the same ? value. A DC â€Å"Load Line† can also be drawn onto the output characteristics curves to show all the possible operating points when ifferent values of base current are applied. It is necessary to set the initial value of Vce correctly to allow the output voltage to vary both up and down when amplifying AC input signals and this is called setting the operating point or Quiescent Point, Q-point for short and this is shown below. SINGLE STAGE COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT |[pic] | CHAPTER 7 CONDENSER MIC [pic] INTRODUCTION Microphones are a type of  transducer  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ a device w hich converts energy from one form to another.Microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical energy (the audio signal). Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy but they all share one thing in common: The  diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminum) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves. In a typical hand-held mic like the one below, the diaphragm is located in the head of the microphone. LOCATION OF MICROPHONE DIAPHRAGM [pic] When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphone to vibrate.These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the audio signal. Note: At the other end of the audio chain, the loudspeaker is also a transducer – it converts the electrical energy back into acoustical energy. TYPES OF MICROPHONE There are a number of different types of microphone in common use. The differences can be divided into two areas: (a) T HE TYPE OF CONVERSION TECHNOLOGY THEY USE this refers to the technical method the mic uses to convert sound into electricity. The most common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal.Each has advantages and disadvantages, and each is generally more suited to certain types of application. The following pages will provide details. (b) THE TYPE OF APPLICATION THEY ARE DESIGNED FOR some mics are designed for general use and can be used effectively in many different situations. Others are very specialized and are only really useful for their intended purpose. Characteristics to look for include directional properties, frequency response and impedance (more on these later). MIC LEVEL & LINE LEVEL The electrical current generated by a microphone is very small.Referred to as mic level, this signal is typically measured in mill volts. Before it can be used for anything serious the signal needs to be amplified, usually to line level (typically 0. 5 -2V). Being a stronger and mo re robust signal, line level is the standard signal strength used by audio processing equipment and common domestic equipment such as CD players, tape machines, VCRs, etc. This amplification is achieved in one or more of the following ways: †¢ Some microphones have tiny built-in amplifiers which boost the signal to a high mic level or line level. The mic can be fed through a small boosting amplifier, often called a line amp. †¢ Sound mixers have small amplifiers in each channel. Attenuators can accommodate mics of varying levels and adjust them all to an even line level. †¢ The audio signal is fed to a power amplifier – a specialized amp which boosts the signal enough to be fed to loudspeakers. Audio signal is fed to a power amplifier – a specialized amp which boosts the signal enough to be fed to loudspeakers. CONDENSER MICROPHONES Condenser  means  capacitor, an electronic component which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.The term condenser  is actually obsolete but has stuck as the name for this type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into electrical energy. Condenser microphones require power from a battery or external source. The resulting audio signal is stronger signal than that from a dynamic. Condensers also tend to be more sensitive and responsive than dynamics, making them well-suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound. They are not ideal for high-volume work, as their sensitivity makes them prone to distort. HOW CONDENSER MICROPHONES WORK A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them.In the condenser mic, one of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance. Specifically, when the plates are closer together, capacitance increases and a charge current occurs. When the plates are further apart, ca pacitance decreases and a discharge current occurs. A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied either by a battery in the mic or by external phantom power.Phantom power is a means of distributing a DC current through audio cables to provide power for microphones and other equipment. The supplied voltage is usually between 12 and 48 Volts, with 48V being the most common. Individual microphones draw as much current from this voltage as they need. [pic] THE ELECTRET CONDENSER MICROPHONE The Electret condenser mic uses a special type of capacitor which has a permanent voltage built in during manufacture. This is somewhat like a permanent magnet, in that it doesn't require any external power for operation.However good Electret condensers mics usually include a pre-amplifier which does still require power. Other than this difference, you can think of an Electret condenser microphone as being the same as a normal condenser. Technical Notes: †¢ Condenser microphones have a flatter frequency response than dynamics. A condenser mic works in much the same way as an electrostatic tweeter (although obviously in reverse) DIRECTIONAL PROPERTIES Every microphone has a property known as  directionality. This describes the microphone's sensitivity to sound from various directions.Some microphones pick up sound equally from all directions; others pick up sound only from one direction or a particular combination of directions. The types of directionality are divided into three main categories: 1. OMNI DIRECTIONAL Picks up sound evenly from all directions (Omni means â€Å"all† or â€Å"every†). 2. UNIDIRECTIONAL Picks up sound predominantly from one direction. 3. BIDIRECTIONAL picks up sound from two opposite directions. CHAPTER 8 IC LM386N [pic] INTRODUCTION The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications.The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the a ddition of an external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value from 20 to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 mill watts when operating from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation. FEATURES Battery operation Minimum external parts Wide supply voltage range: 4V–12V or 5V–18V Low quiescent current drain: 4mA Voltage gains from 20 to 200Ground referenced input Self-centering output quiescent voltage Low distortion: 0. 2% (AV = 20, VS = 6V, RL = 8W, PO =125mW, f = 1 kHz) Available in 8 pin MSOP package APPLICATION HINTS GAIN CONTROL To make the LM386 a more versatile amplifier, two pins (1 and 8) are provided for gain control. With pins 1 and 8 open the 1. 35 k? resistor sets the gain at 20 (26 dB). If a capacitor is put from pin 1 to 8, bypassing the 1. 35 k? resistor, the gain will go up to 200 (46 dB) . If a resistor is placed in series with the capacitor, the gain can be set to any value from 20 to 200.Gain control can also be done by capacitive coupling a resistor (or FET) from pin 1 to ground. Additional external components can be placed in parallel with the internal feedback resistors to tailor the gain and frequency response for individual applications. For example, we can compensate poor speaker bass response by frequency shaping the feedback path. This is done with a series RC from pin 1 to 5 (paralleling the internal 15 k? resistor). For 6 dB effective bass boost: R. 15 k? , the lowest value for good stable operation is R = 10 k? if pin 8 is open. If pins 1 and 8 are bypassed then R as low as 2 k? an be used. This restriction is because the amplifier is only compensated for closed-loop gains greater than 9. INPUT BIASING The schematic shows that both inputs are biased to ground with a 50 kW resistor. The base current of the input transistors is about 250 nA, so the inputs are at about 12. 5 mV when left open. If the dc source resistance driving the LM386 is higher than 250 kW it will contribute very little additional offset (about 2. 5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). If the dc source resistance is less than 10 kW, then shorting the unused input to ground will keep the offset low (about 2. mV At the input, 50 mV at the output). For dc source resistances between these values we can eliminate excess offset by putting a resistor from the unused input to ground, equal in value to the dc source resistance. Of course all offset problems are eliminated if the input is capacitive coupled. When using the LM386 with higher gains (bypassing the 1. 35 kW resistors between pins 1 and 8) it is necessary to bypass the unused input, preventing degradation of gain and possible instabilities. This is done with a 0. 1 ? F capacitor or a short to ground depending on the dc source resistance on the driven input.CHAPTER 9 EARPHONE [pic] INTRODUCTION Headphones are a pair of small loudspeakers, or less commonly a single speaker, held close to a user's ears and connected to a signal source such as an audio amplifier, radio, CD player or portable media player. They are also known as stereophones, headsets or, colloquially cans. The in-ear versions are known as earphones or earbuds. In the context of telecommunication, the term headset is used to describe a combination of headphone and microphone used for two-way communication, for example with a telephone.The telephone earpiece such as the one pictured at the right was common at the beginning of the 20th century. Headphones originated from the earpiece, and were the only way to listen to audio signals before amplifiers were developed. The first truly successful set was developed by Nathaniel Baldwin, who made them by hand in his kitchen and sold them to the U. S. Navy. Very sensitive headphones such as those manufactured by Brandes around 1919 were commonly used for early radio work. These early headphones used moving iron drivers, either single ended or balanced armature.The requirement for high sensitivity meant no damping was used, thus the sound quality was crude. They also had very poor comfort compared to modern types, usually having no padding and too often having excessive clamping force to the head. Their impedance varied; headphones used in telegraph and telephone work had an impedance of 75 ohms. Those used with early wireless radio had to be more sensitive and were made with more turns of finer wire; impedance of 1,000 to 2,000 ohms was common, which suited both crystal sets and triode receivers.In early powered radios, the headphone was part of the vacuum tube's plate circuit and had dangerous voltages on it. It was normally connected directly to the positive high voltage battery terminal, and the other battery terminal was securely earthed. The use of bare electrical connections meant that users could be shocked if they touched the bare headphone connections while adjusting an uncomfortable headset. APPLICATIONS Headphones may be used both with fixed equipment such as CD or DVD players, home theater, personal computers and with portable devices (e. g. igital audio player/mp3 player, mobile phone, etc. ). Cordless headphones are not connected via a wire, receiving a radio or infrared signal encoded using a radio or infrared transmission link, like FM, Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. These are actually made of powered receiver systems of which the headphone is only a component, these types of cordless headphones are being used more frequently with events such as a Silent disco or Silent Gig. In the professional audio sector headphones are used in live situations by disc jockeys with a DJ mixer and sound engineers for monitoring signal sources.In radio studios, DJs use a pair of headphones when talking to the microphone while the speakers are turned off, to eliminate acoustic feedback and monitor their own voice. In studio recordings, musicians and si ngers use headphones to play along to a backing track. In the military, audio signals of many varieties are monitored using headphones. Wired headphones are attached to an audio source. The most common connection standards are 6. 35mm ( ) and 3. 5mm TRS connectors and sockets. The larger 6. 35mm connector tending to be found on fixed location home or professional equipment.Sony introduced the smaller, and now widely used, 3. 5mm â€Å"minijack† stereo connector in 1979, adapting the older monophonic 3. 5mm connector for use with its Walkman portable stereo tape player and the 3. 5mm connector remains the common connector for portable application today. Adapters are available for converting between 6. 35mm and 3. 5mm devices. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS [pic] Headphones may be used to prevent other people from hearing the sound either for privacy or to prevent disturbance, as in listening in a public library.They can also provide a level of sound fidelity greater than loudspeaker s of similar cost. Part of their ability to do so comes from the lack of any need to perform room correction treatments with headphones. High quality headphones can have an extremely flat low-frequency response down to 20  Hz within 3dB. However, rated frequency response distortion figures do not provide information on what character the sound reproduced at that frequency will be. Marketed claims such as ‘frequency response 4  Hz to 20  kHz' are usually overstatements; the product's response at frequencies lower than 20  Hz is typically very small.Headphones are also useful for video games that use 3D positional audio processing algorithms, as they allow players to better judge the position of an off-screen sound source (such as the footsteps of an opponent). Although modern headphones have been particularly widely sold and used for listening to stereo recordings since the release of the Walkman, there is subjective debate regarding the nature of their reproduction of stereo sound. Stereo recordings represent the position of horizontal depth cues (stereo separation) via volume differences of the sound in question between the two channels.When the sounds from two speakers mix, they create the phase difference the brain uses to locate direction. Through most headphones, because the right and left channels do not combine in this manner, the illusion of the phantom center can be perceived as lost. Hard panned sounds will also only be heard only in one ear rather than from one side. This latter point is of particular importance for earlier stereo recordings which were less sophisticated, sometimes playing vocals through one channel and music through the other.Binaural recordings use a different microphone technique to encode direction directly as phase, with very little amplitude difference (except above 2  kHz) often using a dummy head, and can produce a surprisingly life-like spatial impression through headphones. Commercial recordings almost alwa ys use stereo recording, because historically loudspeaker listening has been more popular than headphone listening. It is possible to change the spatial effects of stereo sound on headphones to better approximate the presentation of speaker reproduction by using frequency-dependent cross-feed between the channels, or—better still—aBlumlein shuffler (a custom EQ employed to augment the low-frequency content of the difference information in a stereo signal). While cross-feed can reduce the unpleasantness that some listeners find with hard panned stereo in headphones, the use of a dummy head during recording, with artificial pinnae, can allow on playback through headphones, the experience of hearing the performance as though situated in the position of the dummy head. Optimal sound is achieved when the dummy head matches the listener's head, since pinnae vary greatly in size and shape.Headsets can have ergonomic benefits over traditional telephone handsets. They allow cal l center agents to maintain better posture instead of tilting their head sideways to cradle a handset. Over time, headphone cables fail. The common scenario in which a replacement might need to be purchased is the physical breakdown of copper wiring at junction points on the cord (at the TRS jack, or at the point of connection to the headphone). These are the sites of greatest and most stressful motion on a cord and so they are typically fitted with some kind of strain relief.CHAPTER 10 APPLICATIONS,FUTURE SCOPE AND CONCLUSION APPLICATIONS IN SPY AGENCIES [pic] 1. To hear private conversations of anyone. 2. To caught anyone doing any illegal work. SOUND AMPLIFIER 1. To amplify the low power audio signals. 2. In hearing aids. SOME OTHER APPLICATIONS As a spy can be use in 1. Concert halls 2. Court houses 3. Conference rooms 4. Embassies 5. Government facilities 6. Recording studios. 7. In army. 8. Secret agencies. FUTURE SCOPE [pic]Spy ears are widely using in the spy agencies due to its amplifying capability of the low power audio signals into the high power audible audio signals due to this property of spy ears we can use it to hear the private conversations of anyone, In the present time spy ears are very popular to hear the private conversations and it can also be used as a hearing aid for the persons who do not have the ability to hear the voice correctly. Spy ears amplifies the sound so it amplify the sounds of low signal for the person and he can clearly hear the voice of the other person and other things.If we consider the future prospectus than we can imagine that spy ears will become very popular in the future due to its hiding capability because we all know that at what rate corruption and illegal things are increasing so due to help of this equipment we can hear the conversation of any suspicious person and stop him. Spy ear can easily hide so they are very difficult to find and the other person can not see it and we can easily hear the conversation of the peritcular person and he van not imagine than someone hearing his conversation and his secret is now opened.TYPES OF SPY EAR In the present condition spy ear are of two types: 1. Wired. 2. Wireless. 1. WIRED [pic] ? Wired spy ear for the short distance use only. ? We can only hear the sound of the person who is near the spy ear. ? Due to its short distance use they are now uses very less in compare to wireless spy ears. ? Wired spy ear can be used to hear the voice of the person at bus stop, school, colleges and many other places without getting his/her attention towards us. ? Wired spy ear can also be used as a hearing aid because of its audio amplifying capability.But if we see in present condition the use of wired spy ears is very less because wireless spy ears can cover a wide range than the wired spy ears, many spy agencies and private security forces use wireless spy ear for the long distance communication. 2. WIRELESS [pic] ? Wire less spy ears are widely using for th e long distance conversation due to its capability of receiving and sending signals from the long distance. ? Wire less spy ears are widely using in spy agencies and private security agencies to connect an long distance communication. ? Wire less spy ear consist of a receiving and a transmitting device. Both device are fabricated on the separate board so they have the property of long distance connectivity and the voice quality is also good. ? Wire less spy ears are also using with the mobile equipments. Transmitting device contain a sim and from our we call on it and after the connectivity we can hear and transmit our voice without getting the attention of the other person. CONCLUSION By the above all discussion at last we can say that the spy ear is very helpful at many levels such as PRIVATE LEVEL †¢ We can hear the conversation of our neighbours without getting their attention. We can hear the conversation of people at bus stop, school, colleges without looking towards them †¢ We can use it as h sound amplifier for low voice signals etc. COUNTRY LEVEL †¢ We can use spy ear to hear the conversation of any suspected person and can know that what is going on. †¢ We can use it against any corrupted person and send him in the jail. At last we can say that the spy ears are very helpful for private as well as national security purpose and in future they will become more popular due to there ability of hiding and catching low frequency voice signal. ———————– IASSCOM FORTUNE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 1